Books

In the male dominated Roman Empire, only one woman held imperial power as a true ruler. This was Galla Placidia, regent for her son Valentinian III in the west from his accession in AD 425 into the later AD 430s. Here she wielded true power, yet her wider her story is even more fantastical given the turbulent age through which she lived her lengthy life. Galla Placidia was born in AD 388, the daughter of Theodosius the Great, famed for banishing pagan worship across his vast empire and the late 4th century AD champion of Christianity. Her two elder brothers were the ineffectual Honorius and Arcadius, they destined to rule the western and eastern empires after their father’s death, the former famed for being in post when Britain finally fell out of imperial control. Throughout her life Galla Placidia was always at the centre of great events. Captured when the Visigoths under Alaric sacked Rome in AD 410, she was taken as a captive to southern Gaul where she married his successor Athaulf, becoming queen consort of the Visigoths. After his death she later married the western emperor Constantius III with whom she had Valentinian. She was her son’s personal tutor as he grew as a young child, then became regent when he acceded to throne at the age of six. She proved highly successful as ruler, holding together the crumbling empire in the west in a way her male predecessors had been unable to. However, she finally fell foul of the rise of the western magister millitum Flavius Aetius and his Hunnic allies, dying of natural causes around AD 450 in Rome. Galla Placidia left multiple legacies both in her own time and today. A patron of architecture and the arts, many of the finest buildings of early antiquity were built under her guidance. The finest can perhaps be seen in Ravenna today, for example her mausoleum there which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, though in keeping with her ever interesting story she was never buried there. Meanwhile, and in a way very relevant today, she has always been a role model for women in power in male dominated society.

“Women cannot hold magistracies, priesthoods, celebrate triumphs, wear badges of office, enjoy gifts, or booty; elegance, finery, and beautiful clothes are women’s emblems, this is what they love and are proud of . . .” Titus Livius, History of Rome, 34.7 In ancient Rome, women were, for the most part, regarded as second-class citizens. Even among the wealthier classes, a woman’s role was to be subordinate to men. Despite the many obstacles placed in their way, some women nevertheless managed to achieve positions of significant political, economic or societal power, both within and without the Roman world. This was often either as rulers in their own right, or with their own political agency. This fascinating new work by best-selling and award-winning historian Dr Simon Elliott FSA turns the spotlight on ten of these extraordinary women. Among them is one of the most famous women in history – Cleopatra – the Greek-speaking Macedonian queen who ruled Egypt and masterfully manipulated the governing classes of Republican Rome. Then there is the mighty Boudicca, the British warrior queen who nearly destroyed the new Roman province from within; and the most politically powerful Roman woman of all, Galla Placidia, who, for over a decade, ruled the Roman Empire on her own as regent for her infant son, Valentinian III. Spanning more than 600 years, the enthralling tales of these formidable female figures challenges traditional interpretations of women’s roles in the ancient world and reveals that the brutal power politics of Rome was not just a man’s game.

Of the many vivid characters who shine in the wars of Alexander the Great’s successors, Demetrius Poliorketes’ light burns brighter than any other. Later famed for his siege prowess, the son of Antigonus Monopthalmus was raised knowing at some stage he could inherit Alexander’s entire empire, such was his father’s initial success. He was a true celebrity in his day, fighting with his father in the Second War of the Diadochi against the cunning Eumenes, and later against Hellenistic all-comers in the Third and Fourth Wars of the Diadochi. Often seen as the culprit when Antiochus died at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC (Demetrius’ victorious cavalry chasing their opponents off the field of battle, leaving his father to his fate), he later made a power play for the Macedonian throne, becoming its first Antigonid king. Sadly for Demetrius he didn’t enjoy his reign for long, being defeated by the combined forces of Pyrrhus of Epirus and his allies in the eastern Mediterranean. Then finally, with his last army, he fled to Syria where his troops deserted him and he died a captive of Seleucus in 283 BC. However, he did establish the Antigonid line which ruled Macedon until its final king, Perseus, was defeated by the Romans at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC. In this brand new biography of the most glamorous of the diadochi, the story of the 40 year funeral games following the death of Alexander will be told from a fresh viewpoint, looking not only at the exploits of Demetrius himself but of his incredible life and times as the plates of political control across Alexander’s vast empire shifted time and again, sometimes in favour of our protagonist, and sometimes against.

Septimius Severus was Rome’s black emperor. Born in the blistering heat of a North African spring in Leptis Magna, AD 145, he died in the freezing cold of a northern British winter in York in AD 211. A giant of an emperor, whose career can be counted in superlatives, Severus was in power at the height of Rome’s might. He led the largest army to ever campaign in Britain, comprising 50,000 men, part of a Roman military establishment which peaked at 33 legions under his rule.

Born into the richest family, in the richest part of the Roman Empire, Severus monumentalised his rule across the empire. He visited – and often fought in – every region. Where he did, he left a mighty legacy in the built environment, for example in Rome where much of the forum Romanum and most of the imperial palaces are Severan. In North Africa, his hometown of Leptis Magna is all Severan, as are the Roman cities in the Atlas Mountains. In London, the land walls that still define the City’s Square Mile were delineated under his rule. Visitors to the undercroft at York Minster can stand where he died.

Septimius Severus was one of the greatest warrior emperors, a hard man who almost died in battle several times and whose attitude is reflected in his deathbed advice to two sons: ‘Be of one mind with your family, enrich the soldiers, and despise the rest.’

Agricola was the great Flavian warrior governor of Britain tasked by the emperor Vespasian with conquering the far north of its main island for the first time. Initially campaigning in Wales and then the north of modern England to secure his rear, he launched his first assault into modern Scotland at the end of the 70s AD. Four more bloody campaigns beyond the Solway Firth-Tyne frontier followed, each time the Romans heading further and further into the heart of darkness, as they would have seen it. Famously, at one stage during the campaigns he also contemplated invading Ireland, only to be told no by the new emperor, Domitian. Ultimately, the primary sources say he defeated the combined armies of the natives in far north at the Battle of Mons Graupius in AD 83. After this, the successful conquest of the whole island was declared, Agricola commanded the Classis Britannia (the Roman navy in Britain) to circumnavigate the whole province for the first time, and Domitian ordered a monumental arch to be built at Richborough on the east coast of Kent to celebrate the Roman triumph. This became the imperial gateway into Roman Britain. In this new, generation-defining book on Agricola’s campaigns in Scotland new archaeological evidence will be used to show how Agricola was able to campaign so far north of the imperial frontier and in such numbers (with over 30,000 men, plus the fleet), and the exact routes he followed. Thus, for the first time, the true story of Agricola in Scotland can be told.

“This book represents the fruit of many years of study by a well respected author in the field. It is well written so as to be very readable for the non-academic whilst presenting a huge, and surely definitive, array of evidence” – Roman Army Talk on Roman Military Dress “An excellent and informative book from a very knowledgeable author” – Amazon.co.uk on Roman Military Dress Gathering together stunning artwork from Graham Sumner’s impressive, expansive portfolio, featuring never-before-seen illustrations from the artist and reminding us of his exceptional ability to bring Ancient Rome to life through painting, this colourful, comprehensive anthology is a must-have for any enthusiast of the period, and of military history in general. Introduced with a foreword by best-selling historian and author Adrian Goldsworthy, Sumner’s beautiful colour reconstructions of Ancient Roman warriors over time are complemented expertly with informative, enlightening text by eminent historian and author Simon Elliott. This combination of Sumner’s illustrations and Elliott’s writing leaves no stone unturned as they divulge information about this fascinating period of military history in mesmerising, intricate detail. Readers will swiftly become fully immersed in this ancient world, and will leave it with a wealth of knowledge about and a profound understanding of the warriors of Ancient Rome, and a great appreciation for Sumner and Elliott’s expertise in the area.

The Roman military machine was the pre-eminent in the ancient world, projecting power across the known world over a vast chronology, and an increasing huge and diverse geography. One of the most powerful instruments of war in the history of conflict, it proved uniquely adept at learning from setbacks, always coming back the stronger for it. In so doing it displayed two of the most important traits associated with the world of Rome. Firstly grit, that key ability to remain steadfast and to overcome adversity, even in the most challenging of circumstances, as faced for example by the Republic in the Second Punic War against Hannibal. Secondly, the ability to copy the successful technical and tactical innovations of their enemies, enabling the Roman military to always stay one step ahead of its opponents on campaign and in battle. In this grand tour covering every aspect of the Roman military, leading expert Dr Simon Elliott first provides a detailed background to the Roman Republic and Empire to provide context for all that follows. He then looks specifically at the Roman military in its three key chronological phases: the Republic, the Principate Empire and the Dominate Empire. Next he forensically examines specific examples of the Roman military on campaign and in battle, and of its engineering prowess. Finally, he examines the many enemies faced by the Roman Republic and Empire. This all provides a firm structure to enable the reader to come to grips with this incredible military machine, one whose exploits still resonate in the world to this very day.

Legio IX Hispana had a long and active history, later founding York from where it guarded the northern frontiers in Britain. But the last evidence for its existence in Britain comes from AD 108. The mystery of their disappearance has inspired debate and imagination for decades. The most popular theory, immortalized in Rosemary Sutcliffe’s novel ‘The Eagle of the Ninth’, is that the legion was sent to fight the Caledonians in Scotland and wiped out there. But more recent archaeology (including evidence that London was burnt to the ground and dozens of decapitated heads) suggests a crisis, not on the border but in the heart of the province, previously thought to have been peaceful at this time. What if IX Hispana took part in a rebellion, leading to their punishment, disbandment and ‘damnatio memoriae’ (official erasure from the records)? This proposed ‘Hadrianic War’ would then be the real context for Hadrian’s ‘visit’ in 122 with a whole legion, VI Victrix, which replaced the ‘vanished’ IX as the garrison at York. Other theories are that it was lost on the Rhine or Danube, or in the East. Simon Elliott considers the evidence for these four theories, and other possibilities.

‘Ragstone to Riches’ tells the story of the huge Roman metalla extractive industries of the south east of the province of Britannia. These provided much of the iron to equip the military there, and ragstone to facilitate the construction of the built environment in the region during the occupation, through to the middle of the 3rd century AD.In the former case this was the Wealden iron industry, which, especially to the north of Hastings, featured sites as large as any industrial enterprise today.Meanwhile, regarding the upper Medway Valley ragstone quarrying industry, the work identifies for the first time the five specific quarries which provided the material to build Roman London.For both, the author also explores the role played by the military in running these enormous metalla enterprises.

My first history book was published on the 3rd of August through the History Press. Entitled ‘Sea Eagles of Empire: The Classis Britannica and the Battles for Britain’, it tells the story of the Roman Navy in Britain. The Roman War Machine comprised land and naval forces, and although the former has been studied extensively, less has been written and understood about the naval forces of the Roman Empire and, in particular, the regional navies which actively participated in most military operations and policed the seas and rivers of the Empire. Until the mid-3rd century, in a British context, this navy was the Classis Britannica – a strong fighting force in its own right. Its composition, ship types, roles, tactics and technology have never been studied at length. Here I tell the story of this illustrious naval force in their metal-beaked galleys and their exploits defeating the enemies of the Emperor, keeping the peace around the British isles.

Since 1975 much new archaeological evidence has come to light to illuminate the immense undertaking of Septimius Severus campaigns in Scotland, allowing for the first time the true story of this savage invasion to be told. In the early 3rd century Severus, the ageing Roman emperor, launched an immense shock and awe assault on Scotland that was so savage it resulted in eighty years of peace on Rome s most troublesome border. The book shows how his force of 50,000 troops, supported by the fleet, hacked their way through the Maeatae around the former Antonine Wall and then pressed on into Caledonian territory up to the Moray Firth. Severus was the first of the great reforming emperors of the Roman military, and his reforms are explained in the context of how he concentrated power around the imperial throne. There is also an in-depth look at the political, economic and social developments that occurred in the Province. This book is aimed at all who have an interest in both military and Roman history. It will particularly appeal to those who are keen to learn more about the narrative of Rome s military presence in Britain, and especially the great campaigns of which Severus assault on Scotland is the best example.

Concise history of the Roman legionary; his weapons, training, skills, as well as significant triumphs and disasters in battle.

The armed forces of Rome, particularly those of the later Republic and Principate, are rightly regarded as some of the finest military formations ever to engage in warfare. Less well known however is their use by the State as tools for such non-military activities in political, economic and social contexts. In this capacity they were central instruments for the Emperor to ensure the smooth running of the Empire. In this book the use of the military for such non-conflict related duties is considered in detail for the first time. The first, and best known, is running the great construction projects of the Empire in their capacity as engineers. Next, the role of the Roman military in the running of industry across the Roman Empire is examined, particularly the mining and quarrying industries but also others. They also took part in agriculture, administered and policed the Empire, provided a firefighting resource and organised games in the arena. The soldiers of Rome really were the foundations on which the Roman Empire was constructed: they literally built an empire. Simon Elliott lifts the lid on this less well-known side to the Roman army, in an accessible narrative designed for a wide readership.

The age of the biblical warrior was one of both great technological development and innovation in warfare, and clashes between competing cultures in the ancient Middle East. The Sumerians were the first to introduce the use of bronze into warfare, and were centuries ahead of the Egyptians in the use of the wheel. The Assyrians developed chariot warfare and set the standard for a new equine-based military culture. The Babylonians had an army whose people were granted land in return for army service. Beginning in approximately 3000 BC with the Sumerians, this authoritative short history gives a masterly overview of warfare and fighting in the age of the Old Testament, including Akkadians, Early and Middle Kingdom Egypt and their enemies, Mycenean and Minoan Greece and Crete (including Homer), Assyrians and New Kingdom Egyptians, the Hittites, the Sea Peoples who gave rise to the Philistines, the Hebrew kingdom, the Babylonian kingdom, the Medes and later Persian Empires, finishing with Dark Age and early Classical Greece. Simon Elliott explains what light archaeology can shed on events in the Bible such as the famous ‘walls came tumbling down’ in the battle of Jericho, David the boy warrior who later faced the Philistines in two crucial battles, and Gideon whose military skills enabled him to defeat an army that vastly outnumbered his own. He also elucidates facts that still have resonance today, for instance the Philistines were originally the Peleset, who settled in Palestine. Peleset evolved to Philistine to Palestine today.

The son of a former slave, Pertinax was the Roman Emperor who proved that no matter how lowly your birth, you could rise to the very top through hard work, grit and determination. Born in AD 126, he made a late career change from working as a grammar teacher to a position in the army. As he moved up the ranks and further along the aristocratic cursus honorum, he took on many of the most important postings in the Empire, from senior military roles in fractious Britain, the Marcomannic Wars on the Danube, to the Parthian Wars in the east. He held governorships in key provinces, and later consulships in Rome itself. When Emperor Commodus was assassinated on New Year’s Eve AD 192/193, the Praetorian Guard alighted on Pertinax to become the new Emperor, expecting a pliable puppet who would favour them with great wealth. But Pertinax was nothing of the sort and when he then attempted to reform the Guard, he was assassinated. His death triggered the beginning of the Year of the Five Emperors’ from which Septimius Severus, Pertinax’s former mentoree, became the ultimate victor and founder of the Severan Dynasty. This previously untold story brings a fascinating and important figure out of the shadows. A self made everyman, a man of principle and ambition, a role model respected by his contemporaries who styled himself on his philosophising predecessor and sometime champion Marcus Aurelius, Pertinax’s remarkable story offers a unique and panoramic insight into the late 2nd century AD Principate Empire.

Julius Caesar has been the inspiration to countless military commanders over the last two millennia. Born into an aristocratic family, his early military campaigns, part of his progression along the cursus honorum, included campaigning in the east, Spain and in the early Roman civil wars. His participation in the Gallic Wars is known mainly through the commentary on the wars that he wrote and published, along with his incursions into Britain. This concise history details his military life, and how it impacted with his political career, from his youth through the civil wars that resulted in his becoming the dictator of Rome, and his legacy.

Much has been written about the Roman army and the mighty legions that conquered their empire and then defended it for centuries against all comers. But little has been written about the men and units employed when something more subtle than the march of legions into pitched battle was required. This is the only book available dedicated to Roman special ops and the role of the Speculatores, Exploratores, Protectores and Areani. Simon Elliott reveals the kinds of special operations conducted by the Romans: tactical scouting ahead of the legions, covert strategic reconnaissance in neighboring states, espionage, assassination or abduction of dissidents and enemies, counter-insurgency, and close protection of Roman officials and commanders. While such missions were frequently executed by ad-hoc units or individuals detailed for that specific mission, the author goes on to reveal the evidence for the aforementioned specialist units. He concludes with an analysis of the extent to which these various forces corresponded to a modern conception of Special Forces. These men were the eyes and ears of the Empire, the deadly tip of the Roman sword.

Dr Simon Elliott offers an authoritative examination of eight major battles that shaped the Roman Empire between the first and third centuries AD. Spanning the highlands of Scotland, the forests of Germany, and the deserts of the Middle East, these engagements illustrate the adaptability of the Roman legions to extreme environments and a wide spectrum of adversaries—from fiercely independent Caledonian tribes to the sophisticated, combined-arms forces of Sassanid Persia, equipped with elite cavalry and war elephants. Several chapters also address the grim reality of Roman civil wars, in which legionary units fought their own compatriots with characteristic ruthlessness. An opening chapter provides a concise yet comprehensive overview of the Imperial Roman army, explaining its organization, equipment, tactics, and doctrinal evolution. Elliott then examines each battle systematically, establishing its strategic context before analysing the composition and capabilities of the opposing forces. He outlines the operational movements leading to the engagement, explains initial deployments, and reconstructs the course of the fighting with clarity and precision. Each analysis concludes with a discussion of the battle’s aftermath and its wider political and military implications for the Empire. The study is supported by clear maps that aid comprehension and allow readers to follow the tactical narratives with ease. Well researched and engagingly written, the book provides a coherent and accessible survey of Rome’s most decisive clashes, demonstrating how the Empire’s military system responded to crises across its vast frontier zones. It serves as both an introduction and a useful synthesis for students of Roman military history.

The world of the Roman Republic and Empire is still very much with us, alive and a key companion as we negotiate the trials and tribulations of modern life. We don’t just walk in the footsteps of Romans great and small; we walk side by side with them.

At its height in the second century AD the Roman Empire stretched across three continents, from Hadrian’s Wall in the far north-west to the bustling port cities on the Red Sea, but its influence spread even further afield, with its legacy lasting to this day.

In The Legacy of Rome, acclaimed historian Dr Simon Elliott sets off on a grand tour of the whole empire, reviewing each region in turn to show how the experience of being part of the Roman world still has a dramatic impact on our lives today. From wild Britannia, where the legacy of conquest still influences relationships with the Continent; to western Europe, where the language, church and even law can be traced back to antiquity; to schisms and war across central Europe and the Middle East that are directly rooted in the world of Rome – the result is a fascinating exploration of the reach of Rome beyond its borders and through time.

Ancient Greeks at War is a lavishly illustrated tour de force covering every aspect of warfare in the Ancient Greek world from the beginnings of Greek civilization through to its assimilation into the ever expanding world of Rome. As such it begins with the onset Minoan culture on Crete around 2,000 BC, then covers the arrival of the Mycenaean civilisation and the ensuing Late Bronze Age Collapse, before moving on to Dark Age and Archaic Greece. This sets the scene for the flowering of Classical Greek civilization, as told through detailed narratives of the Greek and Persian Wars, Peloponnesian Wars and the rise of Thebes as a major power.

The book then moves on to the onset of Macedonian domination under Philip II, before focusing in detail on the exploits of his son Alexander the Great, the all-conquering hero of the ancient world. His legacy was the Hellenistic world with its multiple, never ending series of conflicts that took place over a huge territory, ranging from Italy in the west all the way to India in the east. Those covered include the various Wars of the Successors, the rise of the Bactrian-Greek and Indo-Greek kingdoms, the various wars between the Antigonid Macedonian, Seleucid and Ptolemaic kingdoms, and later the onset of the clash of cultures between the rising power of Rome in the west and the Hellenistic kingdoms. In the long run the latter proved unable to match Rome’s insatiable desire for conquest in the eastern Mediterranean, and this together with the rise of Parthia in the east ensured that one by one the Hellenistic kingdoms and states fell. The book ends with the destruction of Corinth in 146 BC after the defeat by Rome of the Achaean League. The conclusion considers the legacy of the Ancients Greeks in the Roman world, and subsequently.

The Roman Conquests series seeks to explain when and how the Romans were able to conquer a vast empire stretching from the foothills of the Scottish Highlands to the Sahara Desert, from the Atlantic to the Persian Gulf. How did their armies adapt to and overcome the challenges of widely varied enemies and terrain? In this volume, Dr Simon Elliott draws on the latest research and archaeological evidence to present a new narrative of the conquest (never completed) of Britain. From Julius Caesar’s initial incursions in 55 and 54 BC, through the Claudian invasion of 43 AD and the campaigns of expansion and pacification thereafter, he analyses the Roman army in action. The weapons, equipment, organization, leadership, strategy and tactics of the legions and their British foes are described and analysed. The ferocity of the resistance was such that the island was never wholly subdued and required a disproportionate military presence for the duration of its time as a Roman province.

In the middle of the third century AD, Roman Britain’s regional fleet, the Classis Britannica, disappeared. It was never to return. Soon the North Sea and English Channel were overrun by Germanic pirates preying upon the east and south coasts of Britain, and the continental coast up to the Rhine Delta. The western augustus (senior emperor) Maximian turned to a seasoned naval leader called Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Valerius Carausius to restore order. He was so successful that Maximian accused him of pocketing the plunder he’d recaptured—and ordered his execution.

The canny Carausius moved first, and in 286 usurped imperial authority, creating a North Sea empire in northern Gaul and Britain that lasted until 296. Dubbed the pirate king, he initially thrived, seeing off early attempts by Maximian to defeat him. However, in the early 290s Maximian appointed his new caesar (junior emperor), Constantius Chlorus—the father of Constantine the Great—to defeat Carausius. A seasoned commander, Constantius Chlorus soon brought northern Gaul back into the imperial fold, leaving Carausius controlling only Britain. But that control would soon come to an end in dramatic fashion, as recounted in this lively, compelling history.

An exhaustive comparison of two great leaders, using seven traits to judge their military successes with the Macedonian Army and the Republican Roman Army.

In the annals of ancient history the lights of Alexander the Great and Gaius Julius Caesar shine brighter than any other, inspiring generations of dynasts and despots with their imperial exploits. Each has been termed the greatest military leader of the ancient world, but who actually was the best?

In this book Dr Simon Elliott first establishes a set of criteria by which to judge the strategic and tactical genius of both. He then considers both in turn in brand-new, up-to-date military biographies, starting with Alexander, undefeated in battle and conqueror of the largest empire the world had seen by the age of 26. Next Caesar, the man who played the crucial role in expanding Roman territory to the size which would later emerge as the Empire under his great nephew, adopted son and heir Augustus. The book’s detailed conclusion sets each of their military careers against the criteria set out earlier to finally answer the question: who was the greatest military leader in the ancient world?

Few Roman emperors died a natural death. Some fell in battle, heroically or otherwise. Others were assassinated, often gruesomely, or took their own lives. But many, the most powerful men in their known world, fell in questionable circumstances. We don’t know the true cause of their deaths, relying on hearsay and modern speculation. But what are the facts? Can we get to the truth about these dubious deaths? And if not, how close can we truly get?

Here, using a historical detective approach first applied in my acclaimed Roman Britain’s Missing Legion, a BBC History 2021 book of the year, Dr Simon Elliott FSA will use crime scene investigation techniques ancient and modern – and his deep academic knowledge of the Roman world – to review the demise of twelve emperors whose deaths would today attract the interest of the homicide squad.

Each chapter will focus on one cold case. Our first candidate is Augustus, in the Roman world the greatest emperor. Was he murdered by his wife Livia to make way for her son Tiberius. Then, was the latter slain by Caligula, his reputation in tatters after years of debauched living on Capri? Next, was Claudius poisoned by Agrippina the Younger with a bowl of his favourite mushrooms to set Nero on the throne? And did the ambitious, paranoid Domitian kill his elder brother Titus using a sea hare? Then, did Commodus or a crony really kill Marcus Aurelius as depicted in Gladiator and The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire? Moving on, was Caracalla responsible for the death of his father Septimius Severus’ in York in AD 211? He’d certainly tried before. And was Gordian III murdered by a frustrated army after failing to finish off the Sassanid Persians? Or Valerian flayed alive and turned into a mounting block by their great king Shapur I.  Next, did Maximian really hang himself in Milan, or was he murdered by the great Constantine I. Moving on, was the apostate emperor Julian really killed fighting the Persians, or did he fall to a Christian agitator. And did his successor Jovian really die of carbon monoxide poisoning in a tent, or did he too fall foul of the Roman church? Finally, did the west’s last emperor Romulus Augustulus really die a natural death, or was he murdered by a German warlord keen to quietly bring the western empire to an official end?

Each chapter in Death on the Palatine will follow a set pattern to assist the reader follow the arguments presented. First, the Cast of dynastic and historical characters. Next the Case, where I examine motive, means and opportunity. Finally, the conclusion, where I present my findings. Was the emperor murdered, or not?